The social system of the Yuan Dynasty

The social system of the Yuan 元 dynasty

Cultural diversity

Even before the establishment of the Yuan dynasty, China was in close contact with its neighboring countries and was influenced by them. This fact culminated during the time of the mongolian rule over China. The mongolian people generally got to know and appreciate foreign high cultures through their policy of expansion. The state system of the Yuan dynasty benefited from this knowledge, as the Mongols integrated these foreign experts into their empire and used them as intermediaries between Mongolian and Chinese society. 

When the Mongols conquested China, the Chinese society became part of the Mongolian empire which stretched from the Pacific to the Baltic Sea. They were integrated into a network of relationships and ethnic diversity. With the fact that China was not at the center of the Mongolian empire, the perspectives of the Chinese society shifted.

There were many reasons for this cosmopolitanism. First, the Mongol Empire was the largest known empire in the world, whose inherent ethnic and cultural diversity affected the political and administrative structure. Because the Mongolian system of rule traditionally represented a military aristocracy and its rulers legitimized themselves to a special degree through personal charisma, there was a lacked in terms of institutional basis. This caused another reason for the  cosmopolitanism of the Mongols. They made use of the knowledge of the highly developed cultures they conquered, which enabled them to achieve political superiority. With the rule over China, the Mongols benefited in particular from their relations with areas such as Turkestan and the Turkish culture, as well as the Iranian-Tajik culture of southern Turkestan and Iran. With regard to the mutual influence of these cultures on one another, one can speak of a synergistic, as well as an glocal, system. 

The ethnic and cultural diversity of the Yuan Empire is also evident in relation to the religious tolerance of the Mongols, which enabled their subjects to maintain this. This had a positive influence on the society of the Yuan Empire, as its ethnic diversity and also many religions implied great diversity. The Mongols, to whom their autochthonous beliefs and natural religion were very important, remained true to themselfs, but also promoted other religions. Buddhist Lamaism, which contributed to legitimizing the rule of the Mongolian rulers over China, gained particular importance for Kubilai Khan. Because of his association and relation with the Buddhist 'Phags-pa Lama, Khubilai Khan was seen as the embodiment of a Cakravartin king (universal ruler). By incarnating a Cakravartin world ruler, Kubilai takes a position that differs significantly from that of the Chinese emperors. 'Phags-pas religious work, shes-bgha rab-gsal (What you should know exactly), shows Kubilai Khan's line of descent from Chinggis Khan to the Cakravartin world ruler, which legitimized his rule over the Chinese subjects. He thus embodied not just one worldly ruler, but one of universal, sacred character. As a Cakravartin ruler, Kubilai Khan also implied harmony. 

Cultural mediator of the Yuan Dynasty 

Since the Mongols generally remained true to their original culture and the Chinese subjects showed little interest in adapting to the Mongolian culture, a conflict of interests arose. According to the Chinese conception, Kubilai must adapt to their tradition and integrate. For the Mongols, however, this would have implied a loss of their own culture and thus identity, which they could not take into account. For this reason, mediators between the Mongolian and Chinese people were of particular importance. 

Because of this, the Mongol rulers took advantage of the cosmopolitanism of their great empire and developed multinational cadres. These were of course necessary for their syncretistic society in the area of China and additionally for a promising administration. These cadres also served to dispel the basic distrust that the Mongols were shown by their Chinese subjects. Like the Mongols themselves, these mediators between cultures represented a minority in the population. However, they were known for finding access to the Chinese language, writing and literature, and for gaining recognition from the local writers.

The classification of society

The Mongolian rulers over China knew that they represent only a tiny demographic minority. In order to create permanent political unity, harmony and to continue their expansion, the Mongols first had to integrate the already subjugated peoples into a special social system. For this reason, a reform policy was implemented in 1252, which was based on the memorandum of Liu Bingzhong 刘秉忠, a former monk of the Buddhist chan sect.

In order to structure the society of his empire, Kubilai Khan classified the population hierarchically in a total amount of 4 different levels. In this way, and with the help of Chinese advisers, Kubilai Khan succeeded in forming a dynasty whose system made it possible to bridge the cultural differences in the population. This was especially true for the Chinese, highly civilized majority and the small number of Mongolian ruling classes. In the system of this classification, the Mongolian rulers took into account the length of integration into the Mongol Empire. Due to this hierarchy, this system influenced everything related to social life, administrative, judicial and tax matters. There was a strict division between the 4 diffrent social levels, which excluded marriages between the groups. This new social system continued to challenge the traditional Chinese social system. 

The Mongolian social system should not be viewed as a system of "4 classes" because the ranks differed from one another through legal and institutional aspects, but did not imply any economic status or social power. This becomes particularly clear with regard to the southern Chinese population, as their social relationships among themselves barely changed, even after the conquest of the Mongol rulers, and the integration into the social system. 


The social rank of the Mongols 

According to the chuogeng-lu, the top privileged social group included the Mongol rulers and their race themselves,. Within these tribal groups, a distinction was also made between the military aristocracy and the common people. They were the privileged people, but on the other hand made up only 1.5% of the total population. The summary of this Mongolian elite population under the designation "Rank of the Mongols" tends to suggest the image of an internally coherent group. However this social group also implied social differences. 

The social rank of the semuren 

The semuren 色目人 formed the second social rank. This social group implied the Central and Near Eastern vassals of the Mongols. These were in particular the high cultures of the Turks (including Uighurs, Kharluks, Naimans, Tuvas), Tibetans, Tanguts, Russians, Persians and Syrians. Gernet explicitly defines the Persian population as Iranian merchants from the Amu-darja basin, who are known under the name Sarten. The semuren were distinguished by the fact that they were neither Mongolian, nor Chinese, and also weren't influenced by the Chinese culture. In most cases they were Muslim and more loyal to the Mongol rulers than the Chinese subjects. This earned them a special position within the Chinese state system. If one looks at the population of the semuren, it#s obvious that there population,  equally to the Mongolian population, represented only 1.5% of the total population of the Yuan Dynasty. 

The social rank of the hanren 

The third population level comprised 8 groups of residents of northern China, who were summarized within the the social rank of the hanren 汉人 (Han people). All Chinese people of the former Jin 金 empire, as well as  Northeast Asians such as Khitan, Jurchen and Koreans are integrated into this group. The Hanren made up 14% of the total population of the Yuan Empire. 

The social rank of the nanren 

The social rank of the nanren 南人 (southern people) was the lowest in the ranking of Chinese society and was added in 1275, after the conquest of the southern Song 南宋 dynasty. This social group comprised the xin furen 新 夫人 (newly affiliated people). Other names for this social rank were nanzi 南 子 (southerners) or manzi 蛮子 (savages). They made up the majority of the total population of the Yuan Empire (> 80%). Their low social status implied that they were barred from holding high office positions. Disadvantages also became apparent in the form of tax payments.

Impermeability of society 

Specific administrative institutions of the Mongols, unknown to the Chinese population, such as the garrisons, continually highlight the alien character of this dynasty. In many regions, the garrisons played an important role, including in relation to understanding between the Chinese and Mongols, which meant that the social division into the four different ranks of society was not felt too drastically. Especially in the south, where the position of high administrative position from darughachi (state commissioner) could also be transferred to the Chinese.

Ranking based on occupations 

From the source of the tiehan xinshi 铁 函 心 史 it can analyzed that, in addition to the social ranks, a differentiation was made according to occupations. This emphasizes the importance of the semuren, who, mostly as civil servants and administrative employees, occupied the highest positions in the social hierarchy. This hierarchy also shows the reversal of the traditional Confucian social order, and implies the low position of Confucian scholars. Only prostitutes, beggars and slaves were subordinate to them. The unequal legal status of the population classes is clearly documented by the laws, ordinances and legal cases of legal compilations such as the yuan dian-zhang 元 典章.

Die semuren

Semuren 

The term "semuren" is interpreted and translated differently by many historians. Some translate the term as "people with colored eyes," which means that the term refers solely to the physical aspect of this population group. However, the term »semuren« is also interpreted as »persons with special status«. In this case, the term does not express a physical description, but is of an administrative nature, which refers to the different categories of population. Occasionally the semuren are equated with the expression "different foreigners". It can be stated that the term "semuren" was a collective name used for prople from Central Asia, West Asia, and Europe. Some of them had voluntarily joined the Mongolian rulers as vassals. The semuren were granted privileges that were denied to the Chinese population of the han and nanren. However, they had fewer privileges than the Mongolian population. Because of this fact, the semuren are also referred to as "subjects" of the Mongols and "masters" of the Chinese population.

The functions of the semuren
Functions in the administration 

Kubilai Khan often used the semuren as civil servants, who fulfilled mediating positions in accordance to the Mongolian rulers. Due to their high level of education, the semuren often acted as tax collectors, financial administrators, court astronomers, engineers, cartographers, architects, customs officers, doctors, intermediaries or shiboshi 市 博士 (trade commissioners in coastal cities). Many semuren were traders who worked with the Mongolian rulers. The semuren population group was also able to hold the office of darugha (provincial commander; pl. darughachi) due to their devotion to the Mongol rulers. This was an office which was theoretically denied for the Chinese population. Their military knowledge was needed but, as a non-Mongolian population, they did not appear to have been fully trusted.

There were some important personalities among the Muslim semuren who had particularly impressed the Mongolian rulers. Among them is Saiyid Adschall who acted as governor of Yunnan. The special trust that Kubilai had not only in Saiyid Adschall but also in his son, is shown in the fact that this son, Nāṣir-al-Dīn, was used in 1277 as the leader of a military campaign against Burma. The fact that Muslims were still of great importance to the Chinese empire after the fall of the Yuan dynasty is shown by a grandson of Saiyid Adschall, who became famous in the 15th century as Zheng He 郑 和. 

The yin privilege 

Looking at the top government positions, the social inequality within the Yuan empire becomes particularly clear. This was justified by a special system according to which vacancies in the government were primarily filled. The Mongolian rulers differentiated themselves from the generally accepted Chinese tradition, according to which vacancies were filled, for example, by successful candidates for the official examinations. Even after these jinshi 进士 public service exams were reintroduced in 1315, the rules governing the conduct of the exams and the positions obtained through exam success favored non-Chinese candidates. In the course of the examinations, certain contingents were provided according to the origin of the According to this quota regulation, one quarter of a total of 300 nominations were reserved for Mongols, one quarter for the semuren, another quarter for the hanren and a last quarter for the more highly educated southern Chinese. Thus the Mongols and semuren could only benefit from this regulation. 

The Mongol rulers established a system of the inherited preference principle, the yin-privilege, in China. Since the Mongols preferred fixed social classes, this system fitted in with their concept of how social status and privileges should be conferred. The system was extended to all affected peoples. Interestingly, the yin-system was an ancient Chinese institution. However, it was not supported by the Sino-Confucian ideal of individual merit through the jinshi-exams. 

At the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, a large number of the preferred Mongols and semuren were illiterate, in any case with regard to the Chinese language system. During the 13th century, the semuren most likely conversed and communicated using Turkish (especially Uighur) and Persian language. However, this changed as the dynasty progressed. This social group was particularly susceptible to cultural assimilation because of its intermediary role. As previously indicated, one can understand that the semuren always adapted to their environment.

Till the end of the dynasty, the upper level of officials in the Central Secretariat consisted of Mongols and semuren. Chinese appeared occasionally in the second tier, but only dominated the middle and lower tiers. Most of the senior and alternate councilors in the provincial branch secretariats were Mongols or semuren. Throughout the Yuan period, the Chinese were excluded from important positions in the military administration.

The Yuan Dynasty Administrative System

With the conquest of the Chinese territory, the Mongols faced a special challenge. In the Chinese area , there already existed an established, functioning social and administrative system, which represented an opponent for the Mongolian rulers with regard to long-term control over the Chinese area and its population. This fact was strengthened by the high population density of the Chinese population, especially with the conquest of the Southern Song Dynasty. Kubilai Khan was aware that the  Chinese highly developed and civilized society could not be controlled by the traditional Mongolian state system. 

It was a concern of Kubilai Khan to prove his legitimacy to rule over the Chinese population. He wanted to prove that he respected traditional Chinese ideals. He bequeathed the Chinese name "Yuan" (original beginning) to his dynasty. Since 1272, Kubilai Khan moved all central authorities to the newly developed Dadu (大度 Great Capital). The city is also known by the Turkish name Khanbalyq (ruler's city). In contrast to the previous foreign rulers over the Chinese territory, the Mongols under Kubilai Khan had relocated their capital to China in this way and left both their Mongolian homeland and the largest Mongolian empire without a large administrative center in the steppe. 

This system of appreciation for the conquered Chinese territory was much more important to the educated elite of China than the ethnic origin of the conquerors. Kubilai Khan left the Chinese administrative institutions largely untouched, but created special facilities for the specific needs of the Mongols. So he created a central secretariat, modeled on the modified Chinese administration in the Jin Empire, and a censorship. Both suggested that the emperor's interests were being carried out. A special feature of the Yuan dynasty was the division of the empire into provinces as administrative areas, which were subordinate to their own secretariats. To understand this type of administration, Kubilai employed experts from the Middle East and Central Asia. 

Administration by using "dual rule" 

The civil governors of the counties were either Mongols or semuren, and the deputy governor was generally a Mohammedan. Those who held the position of a military governor were exclusively of Mongolian nationality. The dependence on nationality in relation to these two official posts is illustrated by the change in the position of an official named Isimaili (Ismā'īl). He held the office of bāsqāq (military commander) under the rule of the Khitan, but at the moment he joined the Mongols, he was appointed darugha (civil governor) in China. An exception is the already mentioned son of Saiyid Ajall, Nāṣir-al-Dīn, who managed to take on a leading role in the military. 

The double occupation of government offices at all levels led to the emergence of a characteristic phenomenon of the Yuan dynasty. In the course of the double occupation, an office was occupied at the same time by a Chinese official in charge and a co-owner of the office (darugha), mostly a semuren. The dual system of administration as an empire-wide institution enabled the Mongols to avoid excessive dependence of their local administration on indigenous people, whose regional relationships could be at odds with the service of imperial and Mongolian interests. 

The darughachi were particularly distinguished by the fact that they were literate and multilingual. In addition, they already had experience either as merchants in transregional long-distance trade or in the administration of earlier nomadic empires such as the Khitan or the Uighurs. The expertise of this population group has already been reported in connection with Chinggis Khan. If a Chinese, especially in the south of the empire, had the same qualities as a semuren or Mongol, he could also take on the office of darugha. However, this was not the rule. 

They held an important position as civil administrators of a province. In this case, a darugha was appointed to a post far away from his home, so that the risk of an alliance with the local population was low. In this way the maintenance of the power of the Mongols was guaranteed. The darughachi's job was to oversee and approve government actions. Her power exceeded that of the local governor. The darughachi usually did not carry out their tasks in an authoritarian manner, but preferred to hold meetings in order to come to a decision by consensus. 

Potential of conflict 

There was an unresolved incompatibility between the military power structure, which directly served the Mongolian imperial interests, and the gradually more established Chinese forms of civil government. However, only a few Chinese expressed their doubts about the legitimate legitimation of the Mongols. Most of the Chinese elite acted in accordance with Confucian, binding norms of behavior and were loyal to the ruler and the dynasty. One of the main reasons for this was the speed with which the Mongols, under the influence of men like the Confucian scholar Yelü Chucai and the Chinese advisors, had learned to adapt to Chinese conditions. In addition, the exchange of goods with Central and Near East Asia, as well as the already indicated religious tolerance of the Mongols, contributed to the internal stability of the Yuan Empire. 

During the Yuan dynasty, the administration made it necessary to adapt more and more to the needs of the Chinese people. This led to the Confucianization of government policy in 1328. This development reached its climax in 1368 with the flight of the government from Beijing to the north.
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